Afrobarometer Round 6 Survey on Water and Sanitation
Corah Walker
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 1
Afrobarometer Round 6
New data from
36 African countries
Lack of safe water, sanitation spurs growing
dissatisfaction with government performance
Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 76 | Corah Walker
Summary
If water is fundamental to life and human dignity, no issue is more pressing for 663 million
people for whom access is still lacking (United Nations, 2015). As World Water Day (March 22)
reminds us, safe and readily available water is a human right and an important contributor to
public health, whether it is used for drinking, washing, food production, or recreational
purposes. Contaminated water and inadequate sanitation help transmit diseases such as
diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, and typhoid; diarrheal deaths due to unclean drinking water
are estimated at 502,000 each year, most of them of young children (World Health
Organization, 2015). Improved access to safe water and sanitation boosts economic growth,
contributes to poverty reduction, and is highly relevant to achieving all of the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), from health and education to food security and environmental
sustainability (World Bank, 2014).
Substantial progress was made under the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) initiative;
worldwide, the target of reducing by half the proportion of the population without
sustainable access to safe drinking water was met in 2010. But in sub-Saharan Africa, most
countries fell short, and achieving the new SDG No. 6 – ensuring access to water and
sanitation for all by 2030 – will require intensive and sustained action.
In observance of World Water Day, new findings from Afrobarometer’s Round 6 surveys in 36
African countries give voice to citizens who call on their governments to address inadequate
water supply and sanitation as a top priority. Despite some infrastructure improvements,
nearly half (45%) of Africans went without enough clean water for home use during the past
year. More than half (51%) have to leave their compounds in order to access water. One-
third of surveyed communities lack access to a piped-water system, and two-thirds lack
access to sewage infrastructure. Citizens’ ratings of their government’s performance in
providing water and sanitation services worsened over the past decade: A majority say their
government is doing a “fairly” or “very” poor job.
Afrobarometer surveys
Afrobarometer is a pan-African, non-partisan research network that conducts public attitude
surveys on democracy, governance, economic conditions, and related issues across Africa.
Five rounds of surveys were conducted between 1999 and 2013, and results from Round 6
surveys (2014/2015) are currently being released. Afrobarometer conducts face-to-face
interviews in the language of the respondent’s choice with nationally representative
samples, which yield country-level results with a margin of sampling error of +/-2% (for a
sample of 2,400) or +/-3% (for a sample of 1,200) at a 95% confidence level.
This dispatch draws mainly on Round 6 data from nearly 54,000 interviews in 36 countries, with
over-time comparisons for some countries that were also surveyed in previous rounds (see
Appendix Table A.1 for a list of countries and survey dates).
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 2
The contextual data on service infrastructure reported here are captured before and after
interviews with survey respondents. Afrobarometer field teams make on-the-ground
observations in each census enumeration area (EA) about services and facilities that are
available in the area. These observations are recorded and confirmed by survey field
supervisors. Since the EAs visited are selected to represent the population of the country as a
whole, these data provide reliable indicators of infrastructure and service availability.
Interested readers should watch for additional Round 6 findings to be released over the
Key findings
Across 36 countries, almost half (45%) of respondents say they went without enough
clean water at least once during the previous year. One in five (19%) did so “many
times” or “always.”
A majority of Africans (51%) can only access water outside of their compound.
More than one-third (36%) of surveyed communities have no infrastructure for piped
water. More than two-thirds (68%) lack sewerage infrastructure.
One in five citizens (20%) have to leave their compound to use a latrine, and almost
one in 10 (8%) have no access at all to a latrine or toilet, even outside their
compound.
Rural residents have far less access to water and sanitation than their urban
counterparts. North Africa outperforms other regions, while East Africa lags behind.
Water supply ranks fifth among important problems that citizens say their
governments must address. In Burkina Faso, Guinea, and Niger, it’s problem No. 1.
A majority (55%) of African citizens rate their government’s handling of water supply
as “fairly bad” or “very bad.” Across 18 countries tracked since 2005/2006, negative
ratings have increased by 14 percentage points.
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 3
Do your own analysis of Afrobarometer data – on any question, for any country and survey round. It’s easy and
free at www.afrobarometer.org/online-data-analysis.
Limited access to water and sanitation
On average across 36 countries, almost half (45%) of respondents say they went without
enough water for home use at least once during the previous year, including one in five
(19%) who say they went without water “many times” or “always” (Figure 1). Almost three-
fourths of citizens in Gabon (74%) and Liberia (72%) report going without enough water,
compared to 8% in Mauritius and 15% in Cape Verde (Figure 2). Going without enough water
“many times” or “always” affected more than one-third of citizens in Madagascar (42%),
Gabon (39%), Guinea (38%), and
Togo (37%).
By region,1 Central Africa (55%)
has the highest proportion of
respondents who say they went
without enough water at least
once, while North Africa has the lowest (33%). Rural residents are more likely than their urban
counterparts to experience water scarcity, 50% vs. 39%. (Urban-rural and regional differences
are summarized in Figure 16 and Figure 17 on Page 19.)
Figure 1: How often went without enough water | 36 countries | 2014/2015
Respondents were asked: Over the past year, how often, if ever, have you or anyone in your family
gone without enough clean water for home use?
1 Regional groupings are: North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia), Central Africa (Cameroon,
Gabon, São Tomé and Principe), East Africa (Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda), West Africa (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo), Southern Africa (Botswana, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia, Zimbabwe).
55%
11%
15%
11%
8%
Never
Just once or twice
Several times
Many times
Always
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 4
Figure 2: How often went without enough water | by country | 36 countries
| 2014/2015
Respondents were asked: Over the past year, how often, if ever, have you or anyone in your family
gone without enough clean water for home use?
1%
4%
5%
6%
6%
6%
8%
9%
10%
10%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
19%
19%
19%
19%
21%
21%
21%
22%
22%
24%
24%
27%
27%
27%
30%
32%
32%
37%
38%
39%
42%
4%
5%
7%
6%
11%
10%
11%
9%
18%
7%
17%
16%
7%
10%
14%
20%
18%
22%
16%
15%
18%
15%
15%
20%
13%
22%
23%
16%
15%
28%
21%
20%
20%
18%
20%
26%
17%
3%
6%
12%
13%
11%
12%
7%
13%
16%
9%
13%
14%
9%
5%
15%
11%
7%
7%
15%
11%
17%
14%
11%
10%
6%
11%
13%
21%
8%
17%
11%
11%
10%
6%
4%
9%
8%
92%
85%
75%
76%
72%
71%
74%
69%
55%
74%
58%
58%
70%
70%
55%
52%
56%
52%
50%
55%
44%
50%
53%
48%
60%
44%
40%
35%
49%
27%
38%
37%
38%
39%
38%
26%
34%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Mauritius
Cape Verde
Egypt
Namibia
Morocco
Algeria
Ghana
South Africa
Nigeria
Tunisia
Kenya
Uganda
São Tomé and Príncipe
Mali
Botswana
Zambia
Burundi
Sierra Leone
Tanzania
Average
Zimbabwe
Lesotho
Swaziland
Senegal
Malawi
Benin
Sudan
Mozambique
Niger
Liberia
Cameroon
Burkina Faso
Côte d'Ivoire
Togo
Guinea
Gabon
Madagascar
Always/ many times Several times Just once or twice Never
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 5
Overall, the past decade has seen no improvement in the experience of water scarcity.
Across 18 countries tracked by Afrobarometer surveys since 2005/2006,2 the average
proportion of respondents who went without enough water increased marginally, from 40%
to 43%. Six countries significantly reduced the proportion of citizens who went without water,
led by Cape Verde (a 27-percentage-point drop) and Namibia (-25 points) (Figure 3, top).3
The proportions increased in four countries, most dramatically (by 43 percentage points) in
Madagascar (Figure 3, bottom).
Figure 3: Countries with reduced (top) and increased (bottom) proportions of the
population going without water at least once | 2005-2015
Respondents were asked:Over the past year, how often, if ever, have you or anyone in your family
gone without enough clean water for home use? (% who went without water at least once in the
preceding year)
2 The 18 countries are Benin, Botswana, Cape Verde, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali,
Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. 3 Due to rounding, the sum of subcategories may vary by 1 percentage point from reported totals.
42%
58% 48%
15%
49%
44%
35%
25%
65%
44% 47%
52%
46% 45%
42% 47%
48%
36% 40%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013 2014/2015
Cape Verde
Namibia
Zambia
Kenya
Malawi
Uganda
23%
30%
44%
66%
34%
38%
37%
45%
54%
35%
49%
63%
46%
55%
51% 52%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013 2014/2015
Madagascar
Botswana
Mozambique
Senegal
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 6
Limited water and sanitation infrastructure
The frequency of going without enough water reflects in part a lack of access to basic
infrastructure. Afrobarometer interviewers gather observational data about the availability of
public services, including the presence of piped water and sewerage systems “that most
houses could access,” in the enumeration areas (typically 150-300 per country) where they
On average across 36 countries, more than one-third (36%) of respondents live in zones
without piped-water infrastructure, and more than two-thirds (68%) have no sewerage
infrastructure in their communities. In the 18 countries tracked by Afrobarometer since
2005/2006, access to basic service infrastructure has increased modestly over the past
decade – by 14 percentage points for piped-water systems and just 8 percentage points for
sewage systems (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Improved availability of basic infrastructure | 18 countries | 2005-2015
Afrobarometer interviewers were asked to observe: Are the following services present in the primary
sampling unit/enumeration area: Piped-water system that most houses could access? Sewage system
that most houses could access? (% of enumeration areas where services are available)
49% 53%
55%
63%
22% 23% 24%
30%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013 2014/2015
Piped water
Sewage system
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 7
Piped-water infrastructure
The availability of piped-water infrastructure varies widely among countries. Piped-water
systems are available in all or nearly all enumeration areas in Mauritius (100%), Egypt (100%),
and Algeria (97%). In contrast, less than one-third of enumeration areas have piped-water
systems in Liberia (17%), Malawi (27%), Sierra Leone (27%), and Uganda (30%) (Figure 5).
Central Africa (87%) and North Africa (83%) have the highest proportions of enumeration
areas with piped-water systems, while East Africa trails at 39%. Urban areas are about twice
as likely to have piped-water infrastructure as rural areas, 89% vs. 45%.
Figure 5: Proportion of citizens living in enumeration areas with piped water systems
| 36 countries | 2014/2015
Afrobarometer interviewers were asked to observe: Are the following services present in the primary
sampling unit/enumeration area: Piped-water system that most houses could access? (% with piped-
water system)
17% 27% 27%
30% 34% 36% 38% 39%
43% 44% 46% 47% 48% 48%
56% 59% 59% 61%
64% 70% 71% 72%
75% 77%
80% 83% 84% 85% 87% 87%
90% 91% 91% 92%
97% 100% 100%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Liberia Malawi
Sierra Leone Uganda
Tanzania Zambia
Zimbabwe Mozambique
Niger Mali
Kenya Burundi
Madagascar Nigeria
Togo Sudan
Swaziland Guinea
Average Ghana
Namibia Morocco
Benin Gabon Lesotho
Burkina Faso Senegal
Côte d'Ivoire Cape Verde South Africa
Tunisia Botswana
Cameroon São Tomé and Príncipe
Algeria Egypt
Mauritius
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 8
Sewage infrastructure
If substantial proportions of the population lack access to piped-water systems, the situation
is even worse with regard to sewerage. On average, less than one-third (31%) of
enumeration areas have sewerage systems. Algeria (95%) and Egypt (86%) are the only
countries where more than seven in 10 citizens live in enumeration areas that have sewerage
systems. Less than one in 10 have access to sewerage systems in Malawi (3%), Niger (7%),
Sierra Leone (9%), Tanzania (9%), and Uganda (9%) (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Proportion of citizens living in enumeration areas with sewerage systems
| 36 countries | 2014/2015
Afrobarometer interviewers were asked to observe: Are the following services present in the primary
sampling unit/enumeration area: Sewage system that most houses could access? (% with sewage
system)
3%
7%
9%
9%
9%
11%
11%
13%
13%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
16%
16%
17%
18%
18%
19%
26%
31%
34%
36%
36%
39%
42%
43%
44%
54%
54%
56%
64%
68%
68%
86%
95%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Malawi
Niger
Sierra Leone
Tanzania
Uganda
Burundi
Guinea
Burkina Faso
Liberia
Sudan
Mali
Madagascar
Benin
Kenya
Lesotho
Swaziland
Zambia
Gabon
Mozambique
Togo
São Tomé and Príncipe
Average
Nigeria
Senegal
Zimbabwe
Namibia
Botswana
Mauritius
Côte d'Ivoire
Cape Verde
Ghana
Cameroon
Morocco
South Africa
Tunisia
Egypt
Algeria
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 9
North Africa (65%) has twice
the average proportion of
enumeration areas with
sewerage systems, while
East Africa again trails far
behind (11%). Urban
residents (59%) are six times
as likely as their rural
counterparts (10%) to live in
zones with sewage systems.
For more details on piped-
water and sewage
infrastructure, see
Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 67, “Building on progress: Infrastructure development still a
major challenge in Africa,” available at www.afrobarometer.org.
Point of access to water and latrines
Even if they live in a zone served by piped-water infrastructure, many Africans do not have
easy access to running water – a factor with important implications for hygiene and health. A
majority (51%) of respondents do not have access to piped water inside their home or
compound. About three in 10 (28%) say their primary source of household water is within their
home, while about one-fifth (21%) have access to water within their compound but outside
their home.
Again, there are dramatic differences between countries. Almost all Mauritians and
Egyptians (both 96%) have running water inside their home, compared to less than 5% of
citizens in Sierra Leone, Uganda, Guinea, Lesotho, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Madagascar, Mali,
Malawi, Tanzania, and Niger (Figure 7). In 20 of the 36 countries, a majority of citizens have to
go outside their compound to access water.
As in the case of infrastructure, North Africa leads the way on readily accessible water, with
81% of respondents reporting piped water inside their homes, while East Africa trails at 5%.
Rural residents are twice as likely as city dwellers to lack access to water inside their
compound, 66% vs. 30%.
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 10
Figure 7: Primary source of water for household use | 36 countries | 2014/2015
Respondents were asked: Please tell me whether each of the following are available inside your house,
inside your compound, or outside your compound: Your main source of water for household use?
Almost one-tenth (8%) of respondents say they have no access to a latrine or toilet, even
outside their compounds. This is most common among citizens of Niger (39%), Namibia (30%),
Benin (30%), and São Tomé and Principe (27%) (Figure 8). Most Egyptians (97%) and Algerians
(95%) have toilets inside their homes, while this is the case for less than one in 20 citizens in
Uganda, Lesotho, Malawi, Burundi, and Sierra Leone.
1%
1% 2%
2%
2%
2%
3%
3%
3%
4%
4%
6%
6%
8%
10%
12%
13%
15%
15%
18%
18%
21%
21%
26%
28%
29%
37%
41%
57%
58%
60%
61%
82%
84%
87%
96%
96%
14%
10%
25%
23%
13%
7%
30%
32%
13%
17%
12%
35%
32%
15%
40%
37%
39%
14%
27%
46%
7%
36%
15%
48%
21%
37%
16%
26%
17%
20%
14%
13%
6%
5%
8%
3%
3%
85%
88%
73%
76%
85%
91%
65%
64%
83%
79%
84%
59%
62%
77%
50%
51%
49%
71%
57%
37%
75%
43%
64%
26%
51%
34%
45%
32%
25%
21%
26%
26%
11%
11%
4%
1%
2%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Sierra Leone
Uganda
Guinea
Lesotho
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Madagascar
Mali
Malawi
Tanzania
Niger
Mozambique
São Tomé and Príncipe
Liberia
Zambia
Kenya
Swaziland
Ghana
Nigeria
Côte d'Ivoire
Togo
Cameroon
Benin
Botswana
Average
Gabon
Namibia
Zimbabwe
Sudan
South Africa
Cape Verde
Senegal
Morocco
Tunisia
Algeria
Egypt
Mauritius
Inside the house
Inside the compound (but outside the house)
Outside the compound
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 11
North Africans are more than three times as likely as residents of other regions to have toilets
inside the home (89%). East Africans report the fewest toilets inside the home (6%) but are less
likely than West, Central, and Southern Africans to lack access to latrines anywhere, even
outside the compound.
Rural residents are more likely to access toilets/latrines outside the compound (27%) or to
have no access at all (11%) than people living in the city (12% and 3% respectively).
Figure 8: Location of toilet or latrine | 36 countries | 2014/2015
Respondents were asked: Please tell me whether each of the following are available inside your home,
inside your compound, or outside your compound: A toilet or latrine?
2%
3%
3%
3%
4%
6%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
9%
11%
12%
13%
19%
21%
22%
23%
24%
27%
27%
29%
33%
34%
34%
35%
52%
54%
71%
73%
75%
88%
90%
91%
95%
97%
53%
64%
75%
55%
44%
51%
64%
61%
65%
51%
27%
78%
68%
69%
77%
17%
38%
13%
52%
53%
17%
56%
57%
39%
8%
51%
24%
29%
29%
9%
16%
7%
3%
8%
7%
3%
3%
43%
13%
21%
41%
50%
22%
28%
29%
26%
28%
25%
12%
18%
16%
8%
55%
15%
62%
24%
20%
27%
9%
14%
20%
29%
15%
23%
9%
15%
11%
7%
11%
2%
1%
2%
2%
2%
20%
0%
0%
2%
21%
1%
2%
2%
13%
39%
2%
2%
2%
2%
9%
27%
3%
1%
2%
30%
8%
0%
8%
30%
18%
11%
2%
9%
4%
6%
5%
0%
0%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Uganda
Lesotho
Malawi
Burundi
Sierra Leone
Madagascar
Guinea
Mozambique
Tanzania
Burkina Faso
Niger
Mali
Zambia
Kenya
Swaziland
Ghana
São Tomé and Príncipe
Liberia
Côte d'Ivoire
Nigeria
Benin
Botswana
Cameroon
Average
Namibia
Gabon
Togo
Zimbabwe
South Africa
Cape Verde
Senegal
Sudan
Morocco
Mauritius
Tunisia
Algeria
Egypt
Inside the house Inside the compound Outside the compound No latrine
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 12
Water supply among citizens’ top priorities
Given the widespread lack of access to basic infrastructure and to sufficient water, water
supply is understandably a high priority for Africans. Across the 36 surveyed countries, one in
five respondents (20%) list water as one of the three most important problems that
government should address, placing it at No. 5 among all issues (Figure 9). Citizens in Burkina
Faso (60%), Guinea (59%), and Niger (49%) express the greatest concern about water supply,
while less than one in 10 citizens in the North African countries, Liberia, Mauritius, Cape Verde,
Madagascar, and Nigeria rank water among their top three priorities (Figure 10).
Figure 9: Citizen perceptions of most important problems | 36 countries |2014/2015
Respondents were asked: In your opinion, what are the most important problems facing this country
that government should address?
Note: Respondents could give up to three responses. Figure shows % of respondents who cite each
problem among their three responses.
5%
5%
6%
12%
13%
13%
14%
14%
14%
16%
20%
20%
22%
24%
32%
38%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
Democracy / equality / political rights
Political violence / war / terrorism
Housing
Corruption
Management of the economy
Electricity
Crime and security
Food shortage/famine
Other economic issues
Farming/agriculture
Poverty/destitution
Water supply
Infrastructure / transport
Education
Health
Unemployment
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 13
Figure 10: Water supply among top priorities | 36 countries | 2014/2015
Respondents were asked: In your opinion, what are the most important problems facing this country
that government should address?
Note: Respondents could give up to three responses. Figure shows % of respondents who cite each
problem among their top three. Orange colour shows countries in which water supply was among the
five most frequently-cited problems.
Poor government performance on water/sanitation issues
While many citizens consider water supply a priority, they are not satisfied with how their
governments are addressing the issue. On average across 35 countries,4 a majority (55%) of
4 Questions about government performance were not asked in Sudan.
3%
3%
3%
3%
4%
4%
7%
8%
9%
9%
13%
13%
15%
15%
17%
17%
18%
18%
20%
20%
20%
20%
21%
22%
23%
23%
25%
27%
28%
28%
29%
29%
30%
30%
49%
59%
60%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
Egypt
Tunisia
Morocco
Liberia
Mauritius
Algeria
Cape Verde
Sudan
Madagascar
Nigeria
Namibia
South Africa
Cameroon
Senegal
Botswana
Côte d'Ivoire
Gabon
Burundi
Ghana
Zimbabwe
Kenya
Average
São Tomé and Príncipe
Swaziland
Mali
Sierra Leone
Mozambique
Malawi
Uganda
Lesotho
Tanzania
Zambia
Benin
Togo
Niger
Guinea
Burkina Faso
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 14
citizens rate their government’s performance in handling water and sanitation services as
“fairly bad” or “very bad” (Figure 11). This negative appraisal is the majority view in all regions
except North Africa, where 46% of respondents rate their government’s handling of water
and sanitation services as “fairly” or “very” bad. Rural residents (58% disapprove) are
somewhat more critical than city dwellers (51%).
Figure 11: Poor government performance in handling water and sanitation services
| 35 countries | 2014/2015
Respondents were asked: How well or badly would you say the current government is handling the
following matters, or haven’t you heard enough to say: Providing water and sanitation services? (% who
say “fairly badly” or “very badly”)
17%
28%
37%
39%
39%
40%
45%
45%
47%
48%
48%
49%
49%
50%
52%
55%
55%
56%
56%
58%
58%
58%
59%
60%
60%
61%
63%
64%
66%
68%
68%
72%
76%
77%
78%
79%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Mauritius
São Tomé and Príncipe
Namibia
Botswana
Algeria
Cape Verde
Egypt
Morocco
Mozambique
South Africa
Uganda
Swaziland
Malawi
Burundi
Niger
Average
Tanzania
Kenya
Tunisia
Mali
Lesotho
Côte d'Ivoire
Zambia
Senegal
Benin
Cameroon
Togo
Nigeria
Ghana
Liberia
Zimbabwe
Guinea
Burkina Faso
Madagascar
Gabon
Sierra Leone
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 15
Across the 18 countries tracked over the past decade, negative public ratings of
government performance in providing water and sanitation services increased from 41% in
2005/2006 to 55% in 2014/2015. They worsened dramatically in Madagascar (an increase of
47 percentage points in “fairly/very bad” ratings), followed by Ghana (28 points), Senegal
(23 points), Botswana (16 points), Mali (15 points), and South Africa (13 points) (Figure 12,
top). Though still largely negative, ratings became somewhat more positive in four countries
(Zambia, Nigeria, Kenya, and Malawi) (Figure 12, bottom).
Figure 12: Poor government performance: Countries with increased (top) and
decreased (bottom) negative ratings | 2005-2015
Respondents were asked: How well or badly would you say the current government is handling the
following matters, or haven’t you heard enough to say: Providing water and sanitation services? (% who
say “fairly badly” or “very badly”)
34%
46% 43%
48% 43%
54% 54% 58%
23% 27%
31%
39% 36%
51% 53%
60%
39% 35%
51%
66%
30%
47%
64%
77%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013 2014/2015
South Africa
Mali
Botswana
Senegal
Ghana
Madagascar
71%
63%
58% 59%
74%
67% 71%
64% 64%
62%
50%
56% 55%
41%
28%
49%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013 2014/2015
Zambia
Nigeria
Kenya
Malawi
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 16
Figure 13, whose data points represent the 35 countries surveyed about government
performance in 2014/2015, suggests a moderately strong relationship between the
experience of going without enough water and assessments of the government’s
performance: The greater the proportion of the population that went without enough water
at least once during the preceding year, the smaller the proportion who say the government
is performing “very well” or “fairly well” in providing water and sanitation services.
Figure 13: Relationship between going without enough water and government
performance rating | 35 countries | 2014/2015
Respondents were asked:
- Over the past year, how often, if ever, have you or anyone in your family gone without enough
clean water for home use? (% who went without water at least once in the preceding year)
- How well or badly would you say the current government is handling the following matters, or
haven’t you heard enough to say: Providing water and sanitation services? (% who say “very
well” or “fairly well”)
Note: Pearson’s r= -0.7219 (significant at .01 level)
Difficulty obtaining water and sanitation services
One factor that may contribute to dissatisfaction with water and sanitation service provision
is the difficulty of obtaining these utilities. Among respondents who tried to obtain water,
sanitation, or electricity services from the government during the year preceding the survey,
more than half (55%) say it was “difficult” or “very difficult” to get the services they needed.
The proportions complaining of difficulty range from 29% in Botswana to 82% in Liberia (Figure
14).
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%
G o
v e
rn m
e n
t h
a n
d li n
g w
a te
r p
ro v is
io n
v e
ry /f
a ir
ly w
e ll
Went without water at least once
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 17
Figure 14: Difficulty of obtaining water, sanitation, or electric services | 36 countries
| 2014/2015
Respondents were asked: In the past 12 months, have you tried to get water, sanitation, or electric
services from government? (If yes:) How easy or difficult was it to obtain the services you needed? (%
who say “difficult” or “very difficult”)
Bribery to obtain water, sanitation, or electric services
Among citizens who tried to obtain water, sanitation, or electric services from the
government during the year preceding the survey, about one in five (18%) say they had to
pay a bribe or do a favour in order to get the services they needed. Liberians (56%) were the
most likely to have to pay a bribe, while in Botswana no respondent reports having to pay a
bribe for utility services (Figure 15).
29%
34%
37%
37%
39%
40%
43%
45%
45%
48%
49%
52%
52%
53%
53%
54%
55%
55%
55%
55%
56%
56%
57%
57%
59%
61%
61%
61%
64%
65%
66%
69%
71%
73%
75%
82%
83%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Botswana
Mauritius
Cape Verde
South Africa
Algeria
Morocco
Namibia
Burkina Faso
Mali
São Tomé and Príncipe
Uganda
Lesotho
Kenya
Mozambique
Nigeria
Malawi
Guinea
Burundi
Average
Zimbabwe
Zambia
Tanzania
Swaziland
Côte d'Ivoire
Sudan
Tunisia
Niger
Egypt
Ghana
Cameroon
Sierra Leone
Senegal
Togo
Benin
Madagascar
Gabon
Liberia
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 18
Figure 15: Paid a bribe to obtain water or sanitation services in past year
| 36 countries | 2014/2015
Respondents were asked: In the past 12 months, have you tried to get water, sanitation, or electric
services from government? (If yes:) And how often, if ever, have you had to pay a bribe, give a gift, or
do a favour to government officials in order to get the services you needed? (Among respondents who
tried obtain services, % who say they paid a bribe “once or twice,” “a few times,” or “often”)
Urban-rural and regional differences on water and sanitation indicators
Urban-rural differences related to water and sanitation, summarized in Figure 16, reflect a
large disadvantage for rural residents when it comes to access but only minor differences in
the difficulty of obtaining services, the likelihood of having to pay a bribe, and public
assessments of government performance.
Regional differences, summarized in Figure 17, show North Africa generally in the lead and
East Africa trailing with regard to access, while results on other indicators are mixed.
0%
1%
2%
2%
3%
3%
4%
4%
4%
5%
6%
6%
7%
8%
9%
10%
10%
11%
11%
14%
20%
20%
20%
20%
22%
22%
25%
26%
29%
34%
35%
35%
39%
40%
41%
42%
56%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Botswana
Cape Verde
Niger
Mauritius
Swaziland
Namibia
Tunisia
Lesotho
Senegal
Burkina Faso
South Africa
Algeria
Madagascar
Zambia
Burundi
Mali
Zimbabwe
São Tomé and Príncipe
Malawi
Côte d'Ivoire
Average
Uganda
Kenya
Benin
Tanzania
Togo
Sudan
Guinea
Morocco
Cameroon
Nigeria
Ghana
Mozambique
Sierra Leone
Egypt
Gabon
Liberia
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 19
Figure 16: Urban-rural differences on water/sanitation indicators | 36 countries
| 2014/2015
Figure 17: Regional differences on water/sanitation indicators | 36 countries | 2014/2015
58%
3%
12%
38%
66%
90%
54%
50%
51%
4%
14%
15%
30%
39%
11%
39%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Govt handling water/sanitation services
very/fairly badly
Paid bribe for utilities services
at least once
Obtaining utilities difficult/
very difficult
No toilet/latrine in compound
Water source is outside compound
No sewage system
in enumeration area
No piped-water system
in enumeration area
Went without enough water
at least once
Urban Rural
52%
19%
52%
33%
77%
88%
60%
44%
63%
26%
61%
39%
63%
74%
39%
49%
56%
27%
63%
24%
46%
62%
13%
55%
50%
10%
46%
24%
46%
71%
38%
44%
46%
22%
51%
6%
11%
35%
17%
33%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%100%
Govt handling water/sanitation services
very/fairly badly
Paid bribe for utilities services
at least once
Obtaining utilities difficult/
very difficult
No toilet/latrine in compound
Water source is outside compound
No sewage system
in enumeration area
No piped-water system
in enumeration area
Went without enough water
at least once
North Africa Southern Africa Central Africa West Africa East Africa
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 20
References
Bentley, T., Han, K., & Houessou, R. (2015). Inadequate access, poor government performance make water a top priority in Africa. Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 16. Available at: http://afrobarometer.org/publications/ad16-inadequate-access-poor-government- performance-make-water-top-priority-africa.
Bentley, T., Olapade, M., Wambua, P., & Charron, N. (2015). Where to start? Aligning Sustainable Development Goals with citizen priorities. Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 67. Available at: http://afrobarometer.org/publications/ad67-where-start-aligning-sustainable-development- goals-citizen-priorities.
Mitullah, W., Samson, R., Wambua, P., & Balongo, S. (2016). Building on progress: Infrastructure development still a major challenge in Africa. Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 69. Available at: http://www.afrobarometer.org/publications/ad69-building-progress-infrastructure- development-still-major-challenge-africa.
United Nations. (2015). Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all. Sustainable development goals. Available at: http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and- sanitation/.
World Bank. (2014). Water supply and sanitation: Sector results profile. Available at: http://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2013/04/12/water-sanitation-results-profile.World Health Organization. (2015). Drinking-water. WHO Fact Sheet No. 391. Available at: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/.
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 21
Appendix
Table A.1: Afrobarometer Round 6 fieldwork dates and previous survey rounds
Country Months when Round 6
fieldwork was conducted Previous survey rounds
Algeria May-June 2015 2013
BeninMay-June 2014 2005, 2008, 2011
BotswanaJune-July 2014 1999, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2012
Burkina FasoApril-May 2015 2008, 2012
BurundiSeptember-October 2014 2012
CameroonJanuary-February 2015 2013
Cape VerdeNovember-December 2014 2002, 2005, 2008, 2011
Côte d'IvoireAugust-September 2014 2013
Egypt June-July 2015 2013
Gabon September 2015 N/A
GhanaMay-June 2014 1999, 2002, 2005, 2008, 2012
GuineaMarch-April 2015 2013
KenyaNovember-December 2014 2003, 2005, 2008, 2011
LesothoMay 2014 2000, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2012
LiberiaMay 2015 2008, 2012
MadagascarDecember 2015-January 2015 2005, 2008, 2013
MalawiMarch-April 2014 1999, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2012
MaliDecember 2014 2001, 2002, 2005, 2008, 2013
MauritiusJune-July 2014 2012
Morocco November 2015 2013
Mozambique June-August 2015 2002, 2005, 2008, 2012
NamibiaAugust-September 2014 1999, 2003, 2006, 2008, 2012
Niger April 2015 2013
NigeriaDecember 2014-January 2015 2000, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2013
São Tomé and Principe July-August 2015 N/A
SenegalNovember-December 2014 2002, 2005, 2008, 2013
Sierra LeoneMay-June 2015 2012
South Africa August-September 2015 2000, 2002, 2006, 2008, 2011
Sudan June 2015 2013
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 22
Country Months when Round 6
fieldwork was conducted Previous survey rounds
SwazilandApril 2015 2013
TanzaniaAugust-November 2014 2001, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2012
TogoOctober 2014 2012
TunisiaApril-May 2015 2013
UgandaMay 2015 2000, 2002, 2005, 2008, 2012
ZambiaOctober 2014 1999, 2003, 2005, 2009, 2013
ZimbabweNovember 2014 1999, 2004, 2005, 2009, 2012
Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 23
Other Round 6 global releases
Where to start? Aligning sustainable development goals with citizen priorities. (2015).
Building on progress: Infrastructure development still a major challenge in Africa.
publications/ad69-building-progress-infrastructure-development-still-major-challenge-
africa.
Africa’s growth dividend? Lived poverty drops across much of the continent. (2016).
Good neighbours? Africans express high levels of tolerance for many, but not for all.
Off-grid or ‘off-on’: Lack of access, unreliable electricity supply still plague majority of
publications/ad75-unreliable-electricity-supply-still-plague-majority-of-africans
Corah Walker is a research assistant for Afrobarometer and PhD student in the Department of
Political Science at Michigan State University. Email: walke668@msu.edu.
Afrobarometer is produced collaboratively by social scientists from more than 30 African
countries. Coordination is provided by the Center for Democratic Development (CDD) in
Ghana, the Institute for Justice and Reconciliation (IJR) in South Africa, the Institute for
Development Studies (IDS) at the University of Nairobi in Kenya, and the Institute for Empirical
Research in Political Economy (IREEP) in Benin. Michigan State University (MSU) and the
University of Cape Town (UCT) provide technical support to the network.
Core support for Afrobarometer Rounds 5 and 6 has been provided by the UK’s Department
for International Development (DFID), the Mo Ibrahim Foundation, the Swedish International
Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA), the United States Agency for International
Development (USAID), and the World Bank.
#VoicesAfrica.
Infographics designed by Soapbox, www.soapbox.co.uk.
Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 76 | 22 March 2016
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