Afrobarometer Round 6 Survey on Water and Sanitation

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 1

If water is fundamental to life and human dignity, no issue is more pressing for 663 million

people for whom access is still lacking (United Nations, 2015). As World Water Day (March 22)

reminds us, safe and readily available water is a human right and an important contributor to

public health, whether it is used for drinking, washing, food production, or recreational

purposes. Contaminated water and inadequate sanitation help transmit diseases such as

diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, and typhoid; diarrheal deaths due to unclean drinking water

are estimated at 502,000 each year, most of them of young children (World Health

Organization, 2015). Improved access to safe water and sanitation boosts economic growth,

contributes to poverty reduction, and is highly relevant to achieving all of the Sustainable

Development Goals (SDGs), from health and education to food security and environmental

sustainability (World Bank, 2014).

Substantial progress was made under the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) initiative;

worldwide, the target of reducing by half the proportion of the population without

sustainable access to safe drinking water was met in 2010. But in sub-Saharan Africa, most

countries fell short, and achieving the new SDG No. 6 – ensuring access to water and

sanitation for all by 2030 – will require intensive and sustained action.

In observance of World Water Day, new findings from Afrobarometer’s Round 6 surveys in 36

African countries give voice to citizens who call on their governments to address inadequate

water supply and sanitation as a top priority. Despite some infrastructure improvements,

nearly half (45%) of Africans went without enough clean water for home use during the past

year. More than half (51%) have to leave their compounds in order to access water. One-

third of surveyed communities lack access to a piped-water system, and two-thirds lack

access to sewage infrastructure. Citizens’ ratings of their government’s performance in

providing water and sanitation services worsened over the past decade: A majority say their

government is doing a “fairly” or “very” poor job.

Afrobarometer is a pan-African, non-partisan research network that conducts public attitude

surveys on democracy, governance, economic conditions, and related issues across Africa.

Five rounds of surveys were conducted between 1999 and 2013, and results from Round 6

surveys (2014/2015) are currently being released. Afrobarometer conducts face-to-face

interviews in the language of the respondent’s choice with nationally representative

samples, which yield country-level results with a margin of sampling error of +/-2% (for a

sample of 2,400) or +/-3% (for a sample of 1,200) at a 95% confidence level.

This dispatch draws mainly on Round 6 data from nearly 54,000 interviews in 36 countries, with

over-time comparisons for some countries that were also surveyed in previous rounds (see

Appendix Table A.1 for a list of countries and survey dates).

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 2

The contextual data on service infrastructure reported here are captured before and after

interviews with survey respondents. Afrobarometer field teams make on-the-ground

observations in each census enumeration area (EA) about services and facilities that are

available in the area. These observations are recorded and confirmed by survey field

supervisors. Since the EAs visited are selected to represent the population of the country as a

whole, these data provide reliable indicators of infrastructure and service availability.

Interested readers should watch for additional Round 6 findings to be released over the

 Across 36 countries, almost half (45%) of respondents say they went without enough

clean water at least once during the previous year. One in five (19%) did so “many

times” or “always.”

 A majority of Africans (51%) can only access water outside of their compound.

 More than one-third (36%) of surveyed communities have no infrastructure for piped

water. More than two-thirds (68%) lack sewerage infrastructure.

 One in five citizens (20%) have to leave their compound to use a latrine, and almost

one in 10 (8%) have no access at all to a latrine or toilet, even outside their

compound.

 Rural residents have far less access to water and sanitation than their urban

counterparts. North Africa outperforms other regions, while East Africa lags behind.

 Water supply ranks fifth among important problems that citizens say their

governments must address. In Burkina Faso, Guinea, and Niger, it’s problem No. 1.

 A majority (55%) of African citizens rate their government’s handling of water supply

as “fairly bad” or “very bad.” Across 18 countries tracked since 2005/2006, negative

ratings have increased by 14 percentage points.

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 3

On average across 36 countries, almost half (45%) of respondents say they went without

enough water for home use at least once during the previous year, including one in five

(19%) who say they went without water “many times” or “always” (Figure 1). Almost three-

fourths of citizens in Gabon (74%) and Liberia (72%) report going without enough water,

compared to 8% in Mauritius and 15% in Cape Verde (Figure 2). Going without enough water

“many times” or “always” affected more than one-third of citizens in Madagascar (42%),

Gabon (39%), Guinea (38%), and

Togo (37%).

By region,1 Central Africa (55%)

has the highest proportion of

respondents who say they went

without enough water at least

once, while North Africa has the lowest (33%). Rural residents are more likely than their urban

counterparts to experience water scarcity, 50% vs. 39%. (Urban-rural and regional differences

are summarized in Figure 16 and Figure 17 on Page 19.)

Figure 1: How often went without enough water | 36 countries | 2014/2015

1 Regional groupings are: North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia), Central Africa (Cameroon,

Gabon, São Tomé and Principe), East Africa (Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda), West Africa (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo), Southern Africa (Botswana, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia, Zimbabwe).

Never

Just once or twice

Several times

Many times

Always

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 4

Figure 2: How often went without enough water | by country | 36 countries

| 2014/2015

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Mauritius

Cape Verde

Egypt

Namibia

Morocco

Algeria

Ghana

South Africa

Nigeria

Tunisia

Kenya

Uganda

São Tomé and Príncipe

Mali

Botswana

Zambia

Burundi

Sierra Leone

Tanzania

Average

Zimbabwe

Lesotho

Swaziland

Senegal

Malawi

Benin

Sudan

Mozambique

Niger

Liberia

Cameroon

Burkina Faso

Côte d'Ivoire

Togo

Guinea

Gabon

Madagascar

Always/ many times Several times Just once or twice Never

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 5

Overall, the past decade has seen no improvement in the experience of water scarcity.

Across 18 countries tracked by Afrobarometer surveys since 2005/2006,2 the average

proportion of respondents who went without enough water increased marginally, from 40%

to 43%. Six countries significantly reduced the proportion of citizens who went without water,

led by Cape Verde (a 27-percentage-point drop) and Namibia (-25 points) (Figure 3, top).3

The proportions increased in four countries, most dramatically (by 43 percentage points) in

Madagascar (Figure 3, bottom).

population going without water at least once | 2005-2015

2 The 18 countries are Benin, Botswana, Cape Verde, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali,

Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. 3 Due to rounding, the sum of subcategories may vary by 1 percentage point from reported totals.

42%

58% 48%

15%

49%

44%

35%

25%

65%

44% 47%

52%

46% 45%

42% 47%

48%

36% 40%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013 2014/2015

Cape Verde

Namibia

Zambia

Kenya

Malawi

Uganda

23%

30%

44%

66%

34%

38%

37%

45%

54%

35%

49%

63%

46%

55%

51% 52%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013 2014/2015

Madagascar

Botswana

Mozambique

Senegal

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 6

The frequency of going without enough water reflects in part a lack of access to basic

infrastructure. Afrobarometer interviewers gather observational data about the availability of

public services, including the presence of piped water and sewerage systems “that most

houses could access,” in the enumeration areas (typically 150-300 per country) where they

On average across 36 countries, more than one-third (36%) of respondents live in zones

without piped-water infrastructure, and more than two-thirds (68%) have no sewerage

infrastructure in their communities. In the 18 countries tracked by Afrobarometer since

2005/2006, access to basic service infrastructure has increased modestly over the past

decade – by 14 percentage points for piped-water systems and just 8 percentage points for

sewage systems (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Improved availability of basic infrastructure | 18 countries | 2005-2015

Afrobarometer interviewers were asked to observe: Are the following services present in the primary

49% 53%

55%

63%

22% 23% 24%

30%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013 2014/2015

Piped water

Sewage system

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 7

The availability of piped-water infrastructure varies widely among countries. Piped-water

systems are available in all or nearly all enumeration areas in Mauritius (100%), Egypt (100%),

and Algeria (97%). In contrast, less than one-third of enumeration areas have piped-water

systems in Liberia (17%), Malawi (27%), Sierra Leone (27%), and Uganda (30%) (Figure 5).

Central Africa (87%) and North Africa (83%) have the highest proportions of enumeration

areas with piped-water systems, while East Africa trails at 39%. Urban areas are about twice

as likely to have piped-water infrastructure as rural areas, 89% vs. 45%.

| 36 countries | 2014/2015

Afrobarometer interviewers were asked to observe: Are the following services present in the primary

17% 27% 27%

30% 34% 36% 38% 39%

43% 44% 46% 47% 48% 48%

56% 59% 59% 61%

64% 70% 71% 72%

75% 77%

80% 83% 84% 85% 87% 87%

90% 91% 91% 92%

97% 100% 100%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Liberia Malawi

Sierra Leone Uganda

Tanzania Zambia

Zimbabwe Mozambique

Niger Mali

Kenya Burundi

Madagascar Nigeria

Togo Sudan

Swaziland Guinea

Average Ghana

Namibia Morocco

Benin Gabon Lesotho

Burkina Faso Senegal

Côte d'Ivoire Cape Verde South Africa

Tunisia Botswana

Cameroon São Tomé and Príncipe

Algeria Egypt

Mauritius

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 8

Sewage infrastructure

If substantial proportions of the population lack access to piped-water systems, the situation

is even worse with regard to sewerage. On average, less than one-third (31%) of

enumeration areas have sewerage systems. Algeria (95%) and Egypt (86%) are the only

countries where more than seven in 10 citizens live in enumeration areas that have sewerage

systems. Less than one in 10 have access to sewerage systems in Malawi (3%), Niger (7%),

Sierra Leone (9%), Tanzania (9%), and Uganda (9%) (Figure 6).

| 36 countries | 2014/2015

3%

7%

9%

9%

9%

11%

11%

13%

13%

13%

14%

15%

16%

16%

16%

16%

17%

18%

18%

19%

26%

31%

34%

36%

36%

39%

42%

43%

44%

54%

54%

56%

64%

68%

68%

86%

95%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Malawi

Niger

Sierra Leone

Tanzania

Uganda

Burundi

Guinea

Burkina Faso

Liberia

Sudan

Mali

Madagascar

Benin

Kenya

Lesotho

Swaziland

Zambia

Gabon

Mozambique

Togo

São Tomé and Príncipe

Average

Nigeria

Senegal

Zimbabwe

Namibia

Botswana

Mauritius

Côte d'Ivoire

Cape Verde

Ghana

Cameroon

Morocco

South Africa

Tunisia

Egypt

Algeria

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 9

North Africa (65%) has twice

the average proportion of

enumeration areas with

sewerage systems, while

East Africa again trails far

behind (11%). Urban

residents (59%) are six times

as likely as their rural

counterparts (10%) to live in

zones with sewage systems.

For more details on piped-

water and sewage

infrastructure, see

Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 67, “Building on progress: Infrastructure development still a

major challenge in Africa,” available at www.afrobarometer.org.

Even if they live in a zone served by piped-water infrastructure, many Africans do not have

easy access to running water – a factor with important implications for hygiene and health. A

majority (51%) of respondents do not have access to piped water inside their home or

compound. About three in 10 (28%) say their primary source of household water is within their

home, while about one-fifth (21%) have access to water within their compound but outside

their home.

Again, there are dramatic differences between countries. Almost all Mauritians and

Egyptians (both 96%) have running water inside their home, compared to less than 5% of

citizens in Sierra Leone, Uganda, Guinea, Lesotho, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Madagascar, Mali,

Malawi, Tanzania, and Niger (Figure 7). In 20 of the 36 countries, a majority of citizens have to

go outside their compound to access water.

As in the case of infrastructure, North Africa leads the way on readily accessible water, with

81% of respondents reporting piped water inside their homes, while East Africa trails at 5%.

Rural residents are twice as likely as city dwellers to lack access to water inside their

compound, 66% vs. 30%.

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 10

Figure 7: Primary source of water for household use | 36 countries | 2014/2015

Respondents were asked: Please tell me whether each of the following are available inside your house,

Almost one-tenth (8%) of respondents say they have no access to a latrine or toilet, even

outside their compounds. This is most common among citizens of Niger (39%), Namibia (30%),

Benin (30%), and São Tomé and Principe (27%) (Figure 8). Most Egyptians (97%) and Algerians

(95%) have toilets inside their homes, while this is the case for less than one in 20 citizens in

Uganda, Lesotho, Malawi, Burundi, and Sierra Leone.

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Sierra Leone

Uganda

Guinea

Lesotho

Burkina Faso

Burundi

Madagascar

Mali

Malawi

Tanzania

Niger

Mozambique

São Tomé and Príncipe

Liberia

Zambia

Kenya

Swaziland

Ghana

Nigeria

Côte d'Ivoire

Togo

Cameroon

Benin

Botswana

Average

Gabon

Namibia

Zimbabwe

Sudan

South Africa

Cape Verde

Senegal

Morocco

Tunisia

Algeria

Egypt

Mauritius

Inside the house

Inside the compound (but outside the house)

Outside the compound

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 11

North Africans are more than three times as likely as residents of other regions to have toilets

inside the home (89%). East Africans report the fewest toilets inside the home (6%) but are less

likely than West, Central, and Southern Africans to lack access to latrines anywhere, even

outside the compound.

Rural residents are more likely to access toilets/latrines outside the compound (27%) or to

have no access at all (11%) than people living in the city (12% and 3% respectively).

Figure 8: Location of toilet or latrine | 36 countries | 2014/2015

Respondents were asked: Please tell me whether each of the following are available inside your home,

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Uganda

Lesotho

Malawi

Burundi

Sierra Leone

Madagascar

Guinea

Mozambique

Tanzania

Burkina Faso

Niger

Mali

Zambia

Kenya

Swaziland

Ghana

São Tomé and Príncipe

Liberia

Côte d'Ivoire

Nigeria

Benin

Botswana

Cameroon

Average

Namibia

Gabon

Togo

Zimbabwe

South Africa

Cape Verde

Senegal

Sudan

Morocco

Mauritius

Tunisia

Algeria

Egypt

Inside the house Inside the compound Outside the compound No latrine

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 12

Given the widespread lack of access to basic infrastructure and to sufficient water, water

supply is understandably a high priority for Africans. Across the 36 surveyed countries, one in

five respondents (20%) list water as one of the three most important problems that

government should address, placing it at No. 5 among all issues (Figure 9). Citizens in Burkina

Faso (60%), Guinea (59%), and Niger (49%) express the greatest concern about water supply,

while less than one in 10 citizens in the North African countries, Liberia, Mauritius, Cape Verde,

Madagascar, and Nigeria rank water among their top three priorities (Figure 10).

Figure 9: Citizen perceptions of most important problems | 36 countries |2014/2015

Note: Respondents could give up to three responses. Figure shows % of respondents who cite each

5%

5%

6%

12%

13%

13%

14%

14%

14%

16%

20%

20%

22%

24%

32%

38%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%

Democracy / equality / political rights

Political violence / war / terrorism

Housing

Corruption

Management of the economy

Electricity

Crime and security

Food shortage/famine

Other economic issues

Farming/agriculture

Poverty/destitution

Water supply

Infrastructure / transport

Education

Health

Unemployment

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 13

Figure 10: Water supply among top priorities | 36 countries | 2014/2015

Note: Respondents could give up to three responses. Figure shows % of respondents who cite each

While many citizens consider water supply a priority, they are not satisfied with how their

governments are addressing the issue. On average across 35 countries,4 a majority (55%) of

4 Questions about government performance were not asked in Sudan.

3%

3%

3%

3%

4%

4%

7%

8%

9%

9%

13%

13%

15%

15%

17%

17%

18%

18%

20%

20%

20%

20%

21%

22%

23%

23%

25%

27%

28%

28%

29%

29%

30%

30%

49%

59%

60%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%

Egypt

Tunisia

Morocco

Liberia

Mauritius

Algeria

Cape Verde

Sudan

Madagascar

Nigeria

Namibia

South Africa

Cameroon

Senegal

Botswana

Côte d'Ivoire

Gabon

Burundi

Ghana

Zimbabwe

Kenya

Average

São Tomé and Príncipe

Swaziland

Mali

Sierra Leone

Mozambique

Malawi

Uganda

Lesotho

Tanzania

Zambia

Benin

Togo

Niger

Guinea

Burkina Faso

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 14

citizens rate their government’s performance in handling water and sanitation services as

“fairly bad” or “very bad” (Figure 11). This negative appraisal is the majority view in all regions

except North Africa, where 46% of respondents rate their government’s handling of water

and sanitation services as “fairly” or “very” bad. Rural residents (58% disapprove) are

somewhat more critical than city dwellers (51%).

| 35 countries | 2014/2015

Respondents were asked: How well or badly would you say the current government is handling the

17%

28%

37%

39%

39%

40%

45%

45%

47%

48%

48%

49%

49%

50%

52%

55%

55%

56%

56%

58%

58%

58%

59%

60%

60%

61%

63%

64%

66%

68%

68%

72%

76%

77%

78%

79%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Mauritius

São Tomé and Príncipe

Namibia

Botswana

Algeria

Cape Verde

Egypt

Morocco

Mozambique

South Africa

Uganda

Swaziland

Malawi

Burundi

Niger

Average

Tanzania

Kenya

Tunisia

Mali

Lesotho

Côte d'Ivoire

Zambia

Senegal

Benin

Cameroon

Togo

Nigeria

Ghana

Liberia

Zimbabwe

Guinea

Burkina Faso

Madagascar

Gabon

Sierra Leone

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 15

Across the 18 countries tracked over the past decade, negative public ratings of

government performance in providing water and sanitation services increased from 41% in

2005/2006 to 55% in 2014/2015. They worsened dramatically in Madagascar (an increase of

47 percentage points in “fairly/very bad” ratings), followed by Ghana (28 points), Senegal

(23 points), Botswana (16 points), Mali (15 points), and South Africa (13 points) (Figure 12,

top). Though still largely negative, ratings became somewhat more positive in four countries

(Zambia, Nigeria, Kenya, and Malawi) (Figure 12, bottom).

decreased (bottom) negative ratings | 2005-2015

following matters, or haven’t you heard enough to say: Providing water and sanitation services? (% who

34%

46% 43%

48% 43%

54% 54% 58%

23% 27%

31%

39% 36%

51% 53%

60%

39% 35%

51%

66%

30%

47%

64%

77%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013 2014/2015

South Africa

Mali

Botswana

Senegal

Ghana

Madagascar

71%

63%

58% 59%

74%

67% 71%

64% 64%

62%

50%

56% 55%

41%

28%

49%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

2005/2006 2008/2009 2011/2013 2014/2015

Zambia

Nigeria

Kenya

Malawi

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 16

Figure 13, whose data points represent the 35 countries surveyed about government

performance in 2014/2015, suggests a moderately strong relationship between the

experience of going without enough water and assessments of the government’s

performance: The greater the proportion of the population that went without enough water

at least once during the preceding year, the smaller the proportion who say the government

is performing “very well” or “fairly well” in providing water and sanitation services.

performance rating | 35 countries | 2014/2015

- Over the past year, how often, if ever, have you or anyone in your family gone without enough

clean water for home use? (% who went without water at least once in the preceding year)

- How well or badly would you say the current government is handling the following matters, or

One factor that may contribute to dissatisfaction with water and sanitation service provision

is the difficulty of obtaining these utilities. Among respondents who tried to obtain water,

sanitation, or electricity services from the government during the year preceding the survey,

more than half (55%) say it was “difficult” or “very difficult” to get the services they needed.

The proportions complaining of difficulty range from 29% in Botswana to 82% in Liberia (Figure

14).

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 17

Figure 14: Difficulty of obtaining water, sanitation, or electric services | 36 countries

| 2014/2015

Bribery to obtain water, sanitation, or electric services

Among citizens who tried to obtain water, sanitation, or electric services from the

government during the year preceding the survey, about one in five (18%) say they had to

pay a bribe or do a favour in order to get the services they needed. Liberians (56%) were the

most likely to have to pay a bribe, while in Botswana no respondent reports having to pay a

bribe for utility services (Figure 15).

29%

34%

37%

37%

39%

40%

43%

45%

45%

48%

49%

52%

52%

53%

53%

54%

55%

55%

55%

55%

56%

56%

57%

57%

59%

61%

61%

61%

64%

65%

66%

69%

71%

73%

75%

82%

83%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Botswana

Mauritius

Cape Verde

South Africa

Algeria

Morocco

Namibia

Burkina Faso

Mali

São Tomé and Príncipe

Uganda

Lesotho

Kenya

Mozambique

Nigeria

Malawi

Guinea

Burundi

Average

Zimbabwe

Zambia

Tanzania

Swaziland

Côte d'Ivoire

Sudan

Tunisia

Niger

Egypt

Ghana

Cameroon

Sierra Leone

Senegal

Togo

Benin

Madagascar

Gabon

Liberia

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 18

| 36 countries | 2014/2015

Urban-rural differences related to water and sanitation, summarized in Figure 16, reflect a

large disadvantage for rural residents when it comes to access but only minor differences in

the difficulty of obtaining services, the likelihood of having to pay a bribe, and public

assessments of government performance.

Regional differences, summarized in Figure 17, show North Africa generally in the lead and

East Africa trailing with regard to access, while results on other indicators are mixed.

0%

1%

2%

2%

3%

3%

4%

4%

4%

5%

6%

6%

7%

8%

9%

10%

10%

11%

11%

14%

20%

20%

20%

20%

22%

22%

25%

26%

29%

34%

35%

35%

39%

40%

41%

42%

56%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Botswana

Cape Verde

Niger

Mauritius

Swaziland

Namibia

Tunisia

Lesotho

Senegal

Burkina Faso

South Africa

Algeria

Madagascar

Zambia

Burundi

Mali

Zimbabwe

São Tomé and Príncipe

Malawi

Côte d'Ivoire

Average

Uganda

Kenya

Benin

Tanzania

Togo

Sudan

Guinea

Morocco

Cameroon

Nigeria

Ghana

Mozambique

Sierra Leone

Egypt

Gabon

Liberia

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 19

Figure 16: Urban-rural differences on water/sanitation indicators | 36 countries

| 2014/2015

Figure 17: Regional differences on water/sanitation indicators | 36 countries | 2014/2015

58%

3%

12%

38%

66%

90%

54%

50%

51%

4%

14%

15%

30%

39%

11%

39%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Govt handling water/sanitation services

very/fairly badly

Paid bribe for utilities services

at least once

Obtaining utilities difficult/

very difficult

No toilet/latrine in compound

Water source is outside compound

No sewage system

in enumeration area

No piped-water system

in enumeration area

Went without enough water

at least once

Urban Rural

52%

19%

52%

33%

77%

88%

60%

44%

63%

26%

61%

39%

63%

74%

39%

49%

56%

27%

63%

24%

46%

62%

13%

55%

50%

10%

46%

24%

46%

71%

38%

44%

46%

22%

51%

6%

11%

35%

17%

33%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%100%

Govt handling water/sanitation services

very/fairly badly

Paid bribe for utilities services

at least once

Obtaining utilities difficult/

very difficult

No toilet/latrine in compound

Water source is outside compound

No sewage system

in enumeration area

No piped-water system

in enumeration area

Went without enough water

at least once

North Africa Southern Africa Central Africa West Africa East Africa

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 20

Bentley, T., Han, K., & Houessou, R. (2015). Inadequate access, poor government performance make water a top priority in Africa. Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 16. Available at: http://afrobarometer.org/publications/ad16-inadequate-access-poor-government- performance-make-water-top-priority-africa.

Bentley, T., Olapade, M., Wambua, P., & Charron, N. (2015). Where to start? Aligning Sustainable Development Goals with citizen priorities. Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 67. Available at: http://afrobarometer.org/publications/ad67-where-start-aligning-sustainable-development- goals-citizen-priorities.

Mitullah, W., Samson, R., Wambua, P., & Balongo, S. (2016). Building on progress: Infrastructure development still a major challenge in Africa. Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 69. Available at: http://www.afrobarometer.org/publications/ad69-building-progress-infrastructure- development-still-major-challenge-africa.

United Nations. (2015). Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all. Sustainable development goals. Available at: http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and- sanitation/.

World Bank. (2014). Water supply and sanitation: Sector results profile. Available at: http://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2013/04/12/water-sanitation-results-profile.World Health Organization. (2015). Drinking-water. WHO Fact Sheet No. 391. Available at: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/.

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 21

Algeria May-June 2015 2013

BeninMay-June 2014 2005, 2008, 2011

BotswanaJune-July 2014 1999, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2012

Burkina FasoApril-May 2015 2008, 2012

BurundiSeptember-October 2014 2012

CameroonJanuary-February 2015 2013

Cape VerdeNovember-December 2014 2002, 2005, 2008, 2011

Côte d'IvoireAugust-September 2014 2013

Egypt June-July 2015 2013

Gabon September 2015 N/A

GhanaMay-June 2014 1999, 2002, 2005, 2008, 2012

GuineaMarch-April 2015 2013

KenyaNovember-December 2014 2003, 2005, 2008, 2011

LesothoMay 2014 2000, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2012

LiberiaMay 2015 2008, 2012

MadagascarDecember 2015-January 2015 2005, 2008, 2013

MalawiMarch-April 2014 1999, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2012

MaliDecember 2014 2001, 2002, 2005, 2008, 2013

MauritiusJune-July 2014 2012

Morocco November 2015 2013

Mozambique June-August 2015 2002, 2005, 2008, 2012

NamibiaAugust-September 2014 1999, 2003, 2006, 2008, 2012

Niger April 2015 2013

NigeriaDecember 2014-January 2015 2000, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2013

São Tomé and Principe July-August 2015 N/A

SenegalNovember-December 2014 2002, 2005, 2008, 2013

Sierra LeoneMay-June 2015 2012

South Africa August-September 2015 2000, 2002, 2006, 2008, 2011

Sudan June 2015 2013

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 22

SwazilandApril 2015 2013

TanzaniaAugust-November 2014 2001, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2012

TogoOctober 2014 2012

TunisiaApril-May 2015 2013

UgandaMay 2015 2000, 2002, 2005, 2008, 2012

ZambiaOctober 2014 1999, 2003, 2005, 2009, 2013

ZimbabweNovember 2014 1999, 2004, 2005, 2009, 2012

Copyright © Afrobarometer 2016 23

 Where to start? Aligning sustainable development goals with citizen priorities. (2015).

 Building on progress: Infrastructure development still a major challenge in Africa.

publications/ad69-building-progress-infrastructure-development-still-major-challenge-

africa.

 Africa’s growth dividend? Lived poverty drops across much of the continent. (2016).

 Good neighbours? Africans express high levels of tolerance for many, but not for all.

 Off-grid or ‘off-on’: Lack of access, unreliable electricity supply still plague majority of

publications/ad75-unreliable-electricity-supply-still-plague-majority-of-africans

Corah Walker is a research assistant for Afrobarometer and PhD student in the Department of

Political Science at Michigan State University. Email: walke668@msu.edu.

Afrobarometer is produced collaboratively by social scientists from more than 30 African

countries. Coordination is provided by the Center for Democratic Development (CDD) in

Ghana, the Institute for Justice and Reconciliation (IJR) in South Africa, the Institute for

Development Studies (IDS) at the University of Nairobi in Kenya, and the Institute for Empirical

Research in Political Economy (IREEP) in Benin. Michigan State University (MSU) and the

University of Cape Town (UCT) provide technical support to the network.

Core support for Afrobarometer Rounds 5 and 6 has been provided by the UK’s Department

for International Development (DFID), the Mo Ibrahim Foundation, the Swedish International

Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA), the United States Agency for International

Development (USAID), and the World Bank.

#VoicesAfrica.