European history has borne witness to the rise and fall of countless cities. Numerous regions and cities have held the title of ‘cultural capital’, influencing other communities and nations at a European or global level. Often a plethora of cultural innovation instigates growth on a large scale, and in turn, this extends the city’s scope of influence. These cultural manifestations can come in many forms and often reflect the large scale societal or cultural archetypes of the relevant era. While cities experience a surge in cultural development and influence across various eras, they often share fundamental similarities during each of their respective times of greatest cultural impact. Naturally, depending on the average mindsets and belief systems around Europe at the time of this cultural innovation, the cities can differ greatly as well. Both Paris and Santiago de Compostela have each experienced a period of intense cultural influence. In this piece, I will first give an overview of the societal and cultural moments or events that contributed to the development of these cities as ‘cultural capitals'. Then through comparing and contrasting, we will analyse their respective mutuality and differences in nature, and this will allow us to assess the functioning of each city in the relevant era.

Santiago de Compostela is the capital city of Galicia, Spain, and has long been a pilgrimage site for Christians. During the middle ages, the city witnessed an unprecedented number of visitors and cultural innovators. At the time, Galicia had immense influence linguistically, culturally, and societally on the Iberian Peninsula. Named after the patron saint of Spain, Saint James, the city has great cultural and religious significance. The remains of Saint James were allegedly found near Santiago de Compostela in the 11th century, and the city was built around this mythical idea. (Gitlitz, Davidson, xiv)

 After the seat of the bishop was transferred to Santiago de Compostela at the end of the 11th century, the religious connotations of the city and the region continued to amplify. It is important to note the religious links the city holds in order to fully understand the cultural manifestations and influence that arose from the Camino de Santiago in the latter parts of the Middle Ages. This series of pilgrimage routes leading to St James’s shrine in the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela opened the door to the cultural exchange between the city and other parts of Europe, greatly augmenting its cultural impact. Of course, many pilgrims still walked the Camino for non-religious purposes as reasons for the pilgrimage “varied wildly” (Sepp,42) even during the middle ages,

“Already in the middle ages one of the common motives for pilgrimage was the wish to travel and see the world, as well as the opportunity to escape from the grey mundane world of everyday life and duties therein” (Sepp,42)

These factors all contributed to the popularity of the Camino and consequently the popularity of the city. Another critical development for Santiago de Compostela at the time was the widely celebrated music and poetry in the Iberian Peninsula. Given that Galician Portuguese was the dominant language of north western Iberia until the latter parts of the Middle Ages, Santiago's linguistic influence was prevalent. The region’s dominance in this domain meant that the most of the Iberian Peninsula composed this musical poetry through Galician Portuguese, bar the Catalonian regions which were too linguistically tied to Old Occitan. (Duffin, 144/145) Troubadours such as Martin Codax and Bernal de Bonaval developed various “Cantigas de Amigos” and “Cantigas de Amor”,  and this style was propagated by royal contributors, as  Duffin alludes to in A Performer's Guide to Medieval Music when discussing the "strong lyrical tradition which was later to find increasing support from the Castilian-Leonese and Portuguese kings." (Duffin, 144)

These artistic advancements completely innovated the sound and musicality of medieval poetry. The Cantigas positively impacted the advancement of the city’s cultural influence due to their meticulous composition and originality,

“These cantigas are the result of technical expertise in the selection of stanza models, and forms that were developed and redeveloped with an elevated artistic awareness, masquerading artifice and an unsurpassable and felicitous originality” (Gonzalez-Paz, 158)

 Santiago de Compostela’s religious implications came during a period in Europe of absolute fidelity to Catholicism, "The period of greatest pilgrimage activity, the 11th and 12th c., was not uncoincidentally the apex of popularity of the medieval veneration of holy relics." (Gitlitz, Davidson, xiv) This factor along with the Camino de Santiago and the artistic innovation through music and poetry, were a combination conducive to development of a cultural capital.

Paris is the more contemporary example of this development process into cultural capital. While Paris has experienced several surges in cultural influence throughout Europe and the world, nothing was more influential than “La Belle Époque”. This period ranged from the end of the Franco-Prussian war in 1870 until WW1 in 1914 and saw Paris become the artistic epicentre of the globe. Mass innovation in architecture, theatre, literature and art would have a lasting impact on artistic expectations for decades to come.( Iriye & Saunier, 235) Artists such as Monet, Rousseau and countless others lived and worked in Paris while the art industry saw extensive transformations with Impressionism and Art Nouveau. (Suckale, 475) Due to the opportunity and artistic ambience coming to life in Paris at the time, the city saw a mass influx of talent. Artists of all genres, skilled painters, writers, actors, playwrights etc, flocked to Paris in order to indulge in the lifestyle, and to experience this hub of high art and culture. "Over the same period, Paris became the centre of the European, and later also the American, art market, and attracted ever more exotic colonies of artists."(Iriye & Saunier, 235) The overabundance of artistic talent in the city was unparalleled at the time and famous figures of the arts filled the streets,

“‘In this great city’ enthused the cultural historian Alexander von Gleichen-Rußwurm, ‘the cultivated reader is never alone.’ ‘Particularly’ ‘on the boulevards’, he says, the curious stroller may meet the figures of literary immortality.’” (Schlör, 26)

This cultural allure attracted wealthy and talented people from across the globe. Another contributing factor in this regard were the ‘Exposition Universelles’ or the World Expos that originated in France. This was a key time for Paris’ development as the western world was undergoing revolutionary industrialization. These expos were an opportunity for countries to exhibit their industrial advancements and innovations. "The greatest of these exhibitions gave Paris a chance to pose regularly as  the international capital of culture, entertainment, and business (50million visitors in 1900)."(Iriye & Saunier, 235) German philosopher Walter Benjamin recognised the unique allure of these Expos for specific communities, “World exhibitions were places of pilgrimage to the fetish Commodity” (Benjamin,81)

 Here we encounter several similarities in the development of Santiago de Compostela and Paris into cultural capitals. Both cities experienced this influx of travellers during their culturally dominant eras. Both the Camino de Santiago, along with Paris’ World Expos and artistic magnetism facilitated rapid growth in population and/or visitors over relatively short periods. This increase in visitors was not only favourable for growth in cultural diversity and innovation on an internal level, but externally as well. For every troubadour and pilgrim bringing their own identity and culture to Santiago de Compostela, an enhancement of the city’s cultural impact ensued. The reciprocal nature of the relationship between these pilgrims and Santiago de Compostela, ensured the spreading and dispersing of the city’s culture all throughout Europe as they returned to their respective homes. This process elevated the poetry and language of Santiago de Compostela at the time to such influential heights. Similarly, in Paris this reciprocal process between traveller and city was taking place, especially during La Belle Epoque. Visitors to World Expos would contribute to the culture individually during their time there. They would do so yet again, in an even more essential manner when returning home and sharing their experiences and knowledge of the charming city, "On their return home they helped foster the mythic cult of Paris and spread the gospel of French language, thought and literature. (Iriye & Saunier, 235) Therefore, on the way to becoming cultural capitals both cities benefited from a mass increase in visitors and new arrivals who subsequently spread their positive cultural image around Europe and the globe. Becoming a hotbed for cultural exchange is always a pivotal moment to developing into a cultural capital, regardless of the time period,

“Through the varying intensity of exchanges, it helped to create centres and peripheries of intellectual life in Europe defining which countries were more involved in cultural exchange and intellectual debate, and how this geography changed over time. (Muchembled, Bethencourt, Monter & Egmond,21)

While there were apparent artistic and touristic correlations between Santiago de Compostela and Paris, the disparity in the domains of industry and economics are also evident. The theatre industry was perhaps Paris’ single greatest commodity during this period. Marcel Proust elaborated on this popularity, “ The fascination for a visual and live spectacle, on stage, was part of Parisian life in the Belle Epoque” as it was “financially accessible to all” and “ the variety of theatres catered to every taste.”(Watt,97) The construction of innovative and more advanced types of theatre, such as the dioramas, logically coincided with the theatre’s heights of popularity. Walter Benjamin recognised the economic significance that this merger of two industries had established, claiming that the dioramas “signalled a revolution in the relationship of art to technology.”(Benjamin,80) Leading up to La Belle Epoque, the construction of arcades or ‘magasins de nouveauté’ were popularized. These constructions centralized commercial goods, analogous to modern day shopping centres, and initiated reformation of the global commercial industry. During this period and the years preceding it, these advancements promoted Paris to the pinnacle of commerce in fashion and luxury. This economic and cultural success was only prolonged and enriched by the World Expos which according to Benjamin “erected the universe of commodities” and were all part of “the phantasmagoria of capitalist culture.”(Benjamin,82/83) This focal point of unprecedented commercialisation is in stark contrast to Santiago de Compostela’s development into a cultural capital. Naturally, commercialisation of this kind was impossible in the middle ages, when societies were more fragmented, less connected and most sustained themselves through strictly agrarian lifestyles. By no means does this imply economic inadequacy during Santiago de Compostela’s development, as rapid economic growth and commercialisation came through the lucrative routes of the Camino, which provided ample opportunity for trade and economic development all throughout Galicia, "…infrastructure (roads and bridges) and inns were built and different profitable businesses sprang." (Ribella, 116/117) Comparatively, this economic development did not flourish to the extent that Paris did. Moreover, numerous factors somewhat impeded the economic growth of the primary routes and, in turn, hindered Galicia’s economic significance.

“The conquest of Seville decisively shifted the economic axes of the Iberian Peninsula, particularly affecting Galicia… After the conquest of Toledo in 1085, its economic importance gradually began to wane, relative to the roads which branched southwards from it.” (D’Emilio,440)

Thus, while both cities would not have developed into cultural capitals without the influx of visitors and the consequential economic upturn, the disparity in this regard is noteworthy to say the least. Both cities offered artistic aspects of cultural influence that are indisputable, yet a distinct differentiation can be made between the developmental impact of Paris’ commercial supremacy compared to Santiago de Compostela’s. One cannot refute nor virtuously downplay the economic success of Paris’ commercial industry. The monetary benefit of these accomplishments is evident, but the beneficial impact of one city acting as Europe’s epicentre of fashion, luxury, and the commercial industry is incalculable. Therefore, while both Santiago de Compostela and Paris can attribute some divergences in development to the fact that they thrived in different eras, this economic and rather commercial disparity, is in fact a fundamental difference in each city’s moments of development towards being a cultural capital.

Regarding architecture, every city has undergone a period of experimentation and innovation throughout history. Often cities are highly acclaimed for their unique, charming architectural identity which is a primary contributor to the identity and ambiance of the city. The malleable nature of this identity is evident in the impact of continual or rapid additions and enhancements of the city’s aesthetics,

“Architecture has through the ages, been a transcended way to preserve this identity and adding more values and perspective.” (Catalani et al.,118)

Moments of architectural innovation were critical in the cultural development of both Paris and Santiago de Compostela. One can draw a similarity between the cities through their respective moments of prominent architectural change or modernization, and the imperative role played by these aesthetic structural modifications. In Santiago de Compostela, due to repeated attacks on the city, modifications were made during the 10th,11th and 12th centuries to fortify the city’s defences. This was done through the construction of walls and towers around the city. These were necessary adjustments made to protect the holy remains of St James from their enemies, and the edifice containing St. James tomb, the cathedral.(Hourihane, 445) The urban planning that came about during this period saw the construction of crucial city landmarks that still stand today. “The three nuclei that shaped the city constituted in 1076 are still visible today” (Hourihane,445) The citadel, the monastery of San Pedro el Viejo and of course the architectural gem of Santiago de Compostela, the Cathedral and its majestic Pórtico da Gloria. The resurrection of the cathedral created not only a distinct destination for the pilgrimage routes, but also provided the city with an epicentre both culturally and economically. “The commercial area developed to the south, around the parish church of Santiago, and spread to the cathedral.” (Hourihane,445) These developments were essential moments in Santiago de Compostela’s history as they ensured reinforcements and safeguarding of the city, established the focal point of the city’s cultural significance with the cathedral, and enhanced the internal commercial dynamics of the city by creating a centralized point for future urban development. In Paris during La Belle Epoque, there was a comparable architectural shift. In fact, Baron Haussmann who was commissioned by Napoleon III to redesign the city in a more sanitary and open manner, alienated many Parisians at the time who felt he had changed the city too dramatically. “Meanwhile as far as Parisians were concerned, he alienated their city from them.” (Benjamin,87) This revamping of the city’s structural identity saw the implementation of wide boulevards, squares etc, much of which Haussmann had taken the initiative to introduce,

“He added new streets, parks and public buildings, and he made two original contributions of primary importance: the supplying of Paris with abundant spring water and the construction of a system of collector sewers that ended the contamination of the Seine within the city” (Pinkney,44)

These changes continued to be implemented all throughout the era culminating in an architectural identity that remains today in Paris. With the aesthetic and structural shift that took place in both Paris and Santiago de Compostela, the dynamics and the functioning of each city had been positively altered. While the motives behind these alterations were different, both experienced visual and structural modifications, a necessary urban renovation conducive to the prosperity of each city. Accordingly, these architectural changes were critical moments in the evolution of each city into a cultural capital.

One essential distinction to make between the development of these cities is to historically contextualise their fundamental values. That is to say, analyse the core values that each city and era was predicated on. Particularly important would be the secularism of the late nineteenth century in comparison with the devout ecclesiastical societal structure of the middle ages.  For example, Santiago de Compostela’s religious significance at the time was monumental. The popularity of the pilgrimage had reached such unprecedented levels that certain clergymen believed the city to be a second Rome, and therefore a second capital of the Catholic Church.

“Towards the end of the eleventh century, bishop Diego Peláez was determined that Santiago would become a second Rome; his successor Diego Gelmírez even got Papal permission to allow the canons to be described as cardinals.” (Stalley,156)

While the Cantigas at the heart of Santiago’s artistic influence were secular in nature, the society, the people’s allegiances, along with the city’s primary cultural function, were deeply entrenched in Catholicism. This relation to Catholicism was one of the, if not the most fundamental value of the development and functioning of Santiago de Compostela. In stark contrast was the fundamental secularism that defined Paris and much of the Western world during La Belle Epoque. The Enlightenment had seen truly ground-breaking scientific, philosophical and artistic transformation, as well as political, with multiple revolutionary and nationalist movements.(Jacob, 1) It was a time of great sophistication and critical thinking, which lead some of the greatest intellectuals in history to the conclusion that the Church would never recover. As Nietzsche so famously declared “God is dead. God remains dead. And we have killed him” (Nietzsche, 125) The romanticism that developed in the 19th century caused a schism between the Church and the average man. This opened the door for individualism, commercialism, and the evolution of a society and cultural capital independent from religion. Therefore, even though the fidelity or lack thereof to the Church is a theme that is often dependent on era and location, this is an essential contrast to highlight between the socio-cultural development of both Paris and Santiago de Compostela.

In conclusion, the creation and evolution of a city into a cultural capital is often a complex phenomenon that includes a multitude of varying factors. Several moments or periods within this era of evolution define the development of the city. Santiago de Compostela’s avant garde music and poetry, and Paris’s innovation in art and theatre, similarly elevated the artistic prominence of each city in their respective eras. This artistic influence either resulted from, or coincided with, an unprecedented level of migration and tourism to the cities. Naturally, this mass surge in visitors or inhabitants provided the cities with a unique platform of cultural influence, in which visitors contributed to and subsequently circulated the culture of each city.  These similarities can be drawn between both Paris and Santiago and are imperative factors in the development of each cultural capital. Nonetheless, these cities were diametrically opposed in other areas of their progression. The economic success and lucrative benefits of the various pilgrimage routes to Santiago are irrefutable, but, simply did not contribute to the same extent that the industrialization and commercialization of Paris did. Paris commercially innovated to the extent that the city dominated society’s most lucrative industries such as fashion and luxury on a global scale, a position that they still hold in present day. This revolution of consumerism propelled the city to economic superiority, and this perpetuated its cultural significance more substantially than Santiago de Compostela’s economic success. Of course, much of this capitalist and commercial advancement was made possible due to the more open and amoral nature of the markets in a secular society. This socio-cultural contrast is vital to the evolution of both cities. The essence of Paris’ sociocultural foundation during La Belle Epoque was  closer to secularism, while the religious affinities of Santiago de Compostela were fundamental in its creation. Santiago developed as an artistic epicentre and a pilgrimage site, whereas Paris developed as an artistic epicentre and a secular commercial capital. Thus, multiple clear similarities and differences are evident in the crucial moments of development for each city. Overall, these moments give us insight into the important contributing factors in the evolution of a cultural capital.