Biomedical Applications of Graphene

Graphene, a two-dimensional (2D) material consisting of a single layer of carbon atoms, has attracted growing interest due to its unique physicochemical properties, which support a wide range of biomedical applications. From drug delivery and biosensing to tissue engineering, graphene's versatility and functionality are increasingly being used to develop next-generation healthcare technologies.

Graphene is an allotrope of carbon composed of an atom-thick, planar sheet arranged in a hexagonal lattice. Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to three neighboring atoms via sp² hybridization, forming a stable and highly ordered structure.1

As a result of this atomic arrangement, the material exhibits anisotropic behavior, with distinct in-plane characteristics and minimal interlayer interactions compared to its bulk counterpart, graphite.1

In addition to its intrinsic physical features, graphene’s surface chemistry can be modified through covalent or non-covalent functionalization, giving it chemical tunability. This enables the attachment of chemical groups, biomolecules, or nanoparticles, improving solubility, dispersibility, and biocompatibility.2

This configuration contributes to a combination of defining features, including high electron mobility, significant tensile integrity, and efficient electrothermal conductivity, which enable graphene's integration into emerging biomedical technologies.3,4

Graphene can be synthesized using several techniques, including mechanical exfoliation, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and reduction of graphene oxide (GO). Each produces forms with specific physicochemical profiles.

For example, mechanical exfoliation produces high-quality graphene with minimal defects but lacks scalability. CVD enables the production of large-area graphene that is suitable for use in electronics and sensors. In contrast, GO reduction is a scalable method that yields hydrophilic graphene-based materials, although typically with a higher defect density.3-5

These synthesis methods influence properties that affect graphene’s biological interactions, including defect density, size, and surface chemistry.3 Understanding how graphene interacts with cellular structures, proteins, and nucleic acids is essential for evaluating its biocompatibility and functionality and advancing its use in therapeutic or diagnostic applications.

Graphene's special capabilities enable various biomedical applications, particularly in biosensing, drug delivery, and antimicrobial coatings.

In biosensing, graphene’s high electron mobility enables the development of highly sensitive and selective diagnostic platforms. Graphene-based sensors can detect biomolecules at very low concentrations, making them suitable for early disease diagnosis and real-time physiological monitoring.4

For example, graphene field-effect transistors (GFETs) functionalized with antibodies can detect cancer biomarkers such as prostate-specific antigen (PSA) at concentrations as low as a few picograms per milliliter. This level of sensitivity supports early-stage cancer detection, helping improve treatment outcomes.4

As a drug delivery platform, GO and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) offer functional groups that allow for the conjugation of therapeutic agents, targeting ligands, or imaging molecules. Their ability to respond to pH, light, or magnetic fields can also enable controlled and site-specific release, improving therapeutic efficacy and minimizing systemic toxicity.5

An example is the targeted delivery of doxorubicin (DOX), a widely used chemotherapeutic agent.5 In one study, GO was functionalized with polyethylene glycol (PEG) to enhance solubility and biocompatibility, and further conjugated with folic acid to enable selective binding to folate receptor-overexpressing cancer cells in ovarian carcinoma gene therapy.6

This system showed enhanced cellular uptake in vitro and increased tumor suppression in vivo while reducing off-target effects, highlighting the potential of GO-based nanocarriers for site-specific chemotherapy with reduced systemic toxicity.6

Graphene also exhibits intrinsic antimicrobial properties, likely due to its capacity to disrupt microbial membranes and induce oxidative stress. This has led to its growing use in graphene-based medical devices and implant coatings to reduce the risk of microbial contamination.

For instance, GO coatings on titanium implants have been shown to significantly reduce colonization by Staphylococcus aureus, lowering post-operative infection incidence.7

Ongoing research is expanding graphene’s medical use, focusing more on translational potential and clinical integration.

In surgical implants, graphene is increasingly being explored as a reinforcing component in composite materials, in addition to its antimicrobial function. When combined with biocompatible polymers or ceramics, it enhances mechanical strength, wear resistance, and interfacial stability, critical factors for orthopedic and dental applications. These composites also show potential in altering cellular responses and promoting osteointegration, all without compromising structural integrity.8

GO has also attracted significant interest in regenerative medicine due to its biocompatibility and abundance of surface functional groups. Scaffolds incorporating GO have been shown to enhance cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation, particularly in neural, bone, and cartilage tissue engineering.9-11

Its electrical conductivity supports the growth of electrically excitable tissues such as nerve and cardiac cells. At the same time, its tunable surface chemistry allows for the controlled release of bioactive molecules, promoting targeted tissue repair.

For instance, composite scaffolds that incorporate graphene or GO with biocompatible polymers such as poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) have been used to support the repair of peripheral nerve injuries.11

In one study, a 3D-printed PLGA-GO nerve conduit loaded with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) promoted the alignment and elongation of Schwann cells, which are essential for myelination and axonal regeneration. The scaffold’s architecture and material composition were designed to support electrical cues. Although the study did not directly apply external electrical stimulation, the conductive environment created by GO incorporation was shown to support neurite outgrowth and improve functional recovery.11

Flexible, wearable graphene-based biosensors have also advanced significantly, offering high sensitivity and real-time monitoring of physiological parameters such as glucose levels, hydration status, and electrophysiological signals. The material’s electrical conductivity, flexibility, and compatibility with skin-contact electronics make it well-suited for continuous, non-invasive clinical and consumer health monitoring.4

Wound healing is another field benefiting from advances in graphene-based materials, which are being developed for their combined antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties. GO and graphene–silver composites have demonstrated the ability to reduce bacterial colonization and modulate inflammatory responses, helping improve outcomes in chronic and post-surgical wounds.12

Graphene’s fundamental structural and functional characteristics provide a versatile application platform across diverse biomedical fields. Ongoing synthesis, functionalization, and regulatory assessment progress will be crucial to safely and effectively continue translating graphene-based technologies into clinical use.

With these developments, graphene is poised to play an increasingly significant role in emerging medical innovations, transforming diagnostics, therapeutics, and regenerative medicine, and ultimately improving healthcare.

Pérez, M., Elías, J., Sosa, M., & Vallejo, M. (2022). Hybridization bond states and band structure of graphene: a simple approach. European Journal of Physics, 43, 4. doi: 10.1088/1361-6404/ac654e

Jeong, J.H., Kang, S., Kim, N., Joshi, R., & Lee, G. (2022). Recent trends in covalent functionalization of 2D materials. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 24(18):10684-10711. doi: 10.1039/D1CP04831G

Liu, N., Tang, Q., Huang, B., & Wang, Y. (2022). Graphene Synthesis: Method, Exfoliation Mechanism, and Large-Scale Production. Crystals, 12(1), 25. doi: 10.3390/cryst12010025

Ozbey, S., Keles, G., & Kurbanoglu, S. (2025). Innovations in graphene-based electrochemical biosensors in healthcare applications. Microchimica Acta, 192, 290. doi: 10.1007/s00604-025-07141-w

Jiříčková, A., Jankovský, O., Sofer, Z., & Sedmidubský, D. (2022). Synthesis and Applications of Graphene Oxide. Materials, 15(3), 920. doi: 10.3390/ma15030920

Wang, Y., Sun, G., Gong, Y., Zhang, Y., Liang, X., & Yang, L. (2020). Functionalized Folate-Modified Graphene Oxide/PEI siRNA Nanocomplexes for Targeted Ovarian Cancer Gene Therapy. Nanoscale Research Letters, 15, 57. doi: 10.1186/s11671-020-3281-7

Tan, J., Li, L., Li, B., Tian, X., Song, P., & Wang, X. (2022). Titanium Surfaces Modified with Graphene Oxide/Gelatin Composite Coatings for Enhanced Antibacterial Properties and Biological Activities. ACS Omega, 7(31):27359–27368. doi: 10.1021/acsomega.2c02387

Qin, W., Xing, T., Tang, B., & Chen, W. (2023). Mechanical properties and osteogenesis of CFR-PEEK composite with interface strengthening by graphene oxide for implant application. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, 148, 106222. doi: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2023.106222

Xing, J., & Liu, S. (2024). Application of loaded graphene oxide biomaterials in the repair and treatment of bone defects. Bone & Joint Research, 13(12):725-740. doi: 10.1302/2046-3758.1312.BJR-2024-0048.R1

Wang, J., Zheng, W., Chen, L., Zhu, T., Shen, W., Fan, C., Wang, H., & Mo, X. (2019). Enhancement of Schwann Cells Function Using Graphene-Oxide-Modified Nanofiber Scaffolds for Peripheral Nerve Regeneration. ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering, 5(5):2444–2456. doi: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.8b01564

Harley-Troxell, M.E., Pedersen, A.P., Newby, S.D., Christoph, E., Stephenson, S., Masi, T.J., Crouch, D.L., Anderson, D.E., & Dhar, M. (2025). 3D-Printed Poly (Lactic-Co-Glycolic Acid) and Graphene Oxide Nerve Guidance Conduit with Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Effective Axon Regeneration in a Rat Sciatic Nerve Defect Model. International Journal of Nanomedicine, 20:3201—3217. doi: 10.2147/IJN.S501241

Öksüz, K.E., Kurt, B., İnan, Z.D.S., & Hepokur, C. (2023). Novel Bioactive Glass/Graphene Oxide-Coated Surgical Sutures for Soft Tissue Regeneration. ACS Omega, 8(24):21628–21641. doi: 10.1021/acsomega.3c00978